What Steps Can A City Take To Repair Its Grids Faster After A Natural Disater

Open access peer-reviewed chapter

Research on Ability Grid Resilience and Power Supply Restoration during Disasters-A Review

Submitted: July 28th, 2020 Reviewed: October 15th, 2020 Published: Nov 15th, 2020

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.94514

IntechOpen Downloads

408

Total Chapter Downloads on intechopen.com

Abstract

Electrical ability system plays an indispensable role in mod society, which supplies the energy to residential, commercial, and industrial consumers. However, the high-impact and low-probability natural disasters (i.e., windstorm, typhoon, and flood) come more frequent because of the climate modify in the recent years, which may sequentially crusade devastating damages to the infrastructure of power systems. The aim of this paper is mainly to explore and review the resilience of power grid arrangement during the disaster and the ability supply management strategies to recover the power grid. Firstly, the category of natural disasters and different influences on power grid are discussed. So, the definition of power grid resilience is explored and the supply direction strategies copying with disasters are introduced, such as microgrids and distributed generation systems. Specially, the electrical vehicles (EVs) equipped with large-capacity battery pack in the transportation network tin also be considered as the distributed power sources with mobility. Thus, the conceptual frameworks of integrating big-scale EVs into the power grid to fasten restoration of the power systems in the pre-disaster/post-disaster are emphatically investigated in this paper. Finally, the opportunities and challenges in further research on employing EVs for emergency power supply in the extreme weather events are too discussed.

Keywords

• power filigree system
• natural disasters
• power grid resilience
• electrical vehicles (EVs)
• power system restoration

• Jingyi Xia

  • School of Global Ecology Studies, Sophia University, Japan

• Fuguo Xu*

  • Section of Engineering and Practical Sciences, Sophia University, Japan

• Guangwei Huang

  • School of Global Environmental Studies, Sophia University, Nippon

*Address all correspondence to: fuguoxu@eagle.sophia.ac.jp

1. Introduction

Due to the climate change, the high-bear upon low-probability extreme weather events, such as hurricane, flood and water ice storm, get more than frequent and drastic in recent years, which lead to an enormous and irreversible impairment to the people'south daily life and the economic system activity. One non-negligible damage caused past the natural disasters is the widespread ability system outage since electrical power provides the foundational support for all manufacture, from the manufacture product to the lifeline energy warranty. Thus, the outage avoidance and fast recovery from the outage are the key factors for the power systems.

The ability of the power systems to cope with the natural disasters is usually seen as the power filigree resilience. Since the uncertain characteristics of a disaster and the complexity of the ability systems, the resilience enhancement measures should be taken into account. Targeting the emission reduction of the transformation system on the road network, the electric vehicles (EVs), including battery electric vehicle, hybrid electrical vehicle and plug-in electric vehicle, are gaining the worldwide attention increasingly. At that place is a revolutionary opportunity in improving resilience of ability systems during the disaster provided by the EVs, due to the abilities of high electric capacity, mobility, and bidirectional charging of EVs.

Thus, this paper mainly makes a comprehensive review of the impacts of natural disasters to the power systems, the resilience improvement strategies, peculiarly with consideration of the high increasing penetration of EVs. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: In Section ii, the introduction of the high-touch low-probability natural disasters and the different impacts to power systems of respective natural disasters are given. And so, the definition of resilience and enhancement strategies for power filigree, including hardening measures and functioning deportment are explored in Section 3. Section iv shows the electrical vehicles with characteristics of mobility and bidirectional charging and the utilization methods to improve power grid resilience functioning in pre-disaster and post-disaster. Finally, the conclusion of this paper and claiming for future work are given in Section 5.

Advertisement

2. The vulnerability of power system to natural disasters

Equally the nigh basic and principal energy sources in the modern club, electric ability plays an of import office in promoting the development of social economical and improving the quality of people'south life. A possible power outage can non merely affect people's daily life and cause immeasurable losses of social economic, only too may lead to the breakdown of critical infrastructures, such as advice networks, police stations and hospitals, which provide essential services for the disaster relief.

Natural disasters can crusade devastating damage to the mod society's infrastructures especially to the electric power system, with their master characteristics of unpredictable, large-scale and inevitable. Although the double circuit configuration for of import circuits, automation equipment of distribution network, and a series of protection systems were adopted to improve the reliability of modern electric power system, the ability system is however vulnerable to natural disasters. In recent decades, in that location were a number of large-calibration power outages around the world due to the damage of the power organisation infrastructure caused by the high-affect low-probability natural disasters including hurricane, earthquake, tsunami and floods.

There has been numerous enquiry on the assay of damage to power arrangement components or other infrastructures which are interdependent with power grids (e.g., transportation, telecommunications), due to natural disasters. It tin can be confirmed that the vulnerability of ability system components to dissimilar types of natural disasters is non identical. Thus, the word of specific examples about the characteristics of damage to power system components acquired past dissimilar types of natural disasters volition be conducted below.

Compared with other natural disasters, substation equipment, which located in a depression-lying area is more vulnerable to flood damage. Abi-Sarma and Henry [i] studied the bear upon of the flood on power substations, which occurred in the Mississippi River basin of the Midwestern United states in the summertime of 1993 and caused about x–fifteen billion of dollars of holding damage. Of Union Electric's (UE, now known as AmerenUE) 1300 stations, there were 19 substations afflicted past rushing waters and several suffered severely impairment. Figure i shows the flooded substations during the 1993 flood at UE. They indicated that the flooded substations were affected very differently from those affected by other natural disasters, due to some electric equipment especially power circuit breakers and depression-voltage control cabinets were easily affected by even tiny amounts of water and mud, which rendered it unable to function unremarkably. In improver, restoring flooded substations required longer time and considerable manpower than restoring a downed power line damaged by ice or air current.

Figure 1.

Flooded substations during the 1993 flood at UE.

The bear upon of hurricane on power system is mainly reflected in the damage to transmission/distribution system and telecommunications. On Baronial 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck the U.s.a. Gulf Coast, generating an intense storm surge. Reed et al. [ii] focused on the resilience of the electric power delivery systems after the Hurricane Katrina and investigated the correlations betwixt ability outage information and weather parameters such every bit wind speed, rainfall and storm surges. They counted that over 20,000 utility poles, 4000 transformer and 1300 manual structures were destroyed directly by storm surge in united states of Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi. Figure 2 shows the damage to filigree by Hurricane Katrina most Pt. A La Hache, LA. Kwasinski et al. [iii] studied the affect of Hurricane Katrina on the telecommunications power infrastructure including damage in wire-line and wireless networks. Their analysis showed that widespread telecommunications outages were mainly due to power shortages caused by fuel delivery disruptions, flooding and security issues. In add-on, the damage to the electric grid was also extensive and severe, especially in the areas affected by the storm surge. The breakdown of to a higher place infrastructure has directly hampered the operations of disaster relief, and prevented people living in the hardest striking areas from appealing for assistance.

Figure 2.

Harm to the electric distribution grid well-nigh Pt. A La Hache, LA.

As a special meteorological disaster, ice storm has greatly affected the safe performance of many overhead lines worldwide. Zhang et al. [4] reviewed the procedure of the astringent ice tempest which took identify in southern Mainland china in 2008, studied the procedure of the power gird hitting by ice tempest and the power restoration, and likewise summarized emergency strategies and the lesson from this natural disaster. They found that pregnant ice accumulated on overhead ability lines and manual towers, which led to cleaved power lines and collapsed towers. Xie and Zhu [5] provided detailed data about the touch of ice storms on Chinese ability arrangement. According to the State Filigree Corporation of Communist china, at that place were at least 36,740 manual lines, 5420 transmission towers, and 2018 transformers damaged, and at least 1841 towers needed to be repaired. Effigy 3 shows the transmission tower collapse caused by ice accumulation in 2008.

Effigy 3.

Manual belfry plummet caused past ice accumulation.

Furthermore, the damage to modern power systems by earthquake has historically been enormous. Fujisaki et al. [6] discussed the observations of earthquake aftermath in Japan, New Zealand, The states, Chile, China, and Republic of haiti, and focused on high-voltage electrical substation equipment and transmission lines in U.s.a., Red china, and Haiti. They indicated that the master reasons for the disruption of the power grid were the collapse of the transmission tower, the impairment of transformers, circuit breakers and other high voltage equipment, and the local damage of broken poles and broken-downwards village transformers. And buried electrical transmission and distribution cables may be vulnerable to liquefaction induced footing deportation in a number of earthquakes. Unquestionably, the damage of earthquake on the ability system infrastructures was extensive and astringent, and the damage to the telecommunications network was besides devastating. During the Wenchuan Convulsion in 2008, cellular service was disrupted for more 60 days in some parts of the earthquake-affected region [7]. Effigy 4 shows the harm to equipment in the Ertaishan switchyard after Wenchuan Convulsion. In the Tohoku Convulsion in 2011, due to earthquake and massive tsunami, xviii telecom buildings were totally complanate, 23 telecom buildings were submerged, 65,000 telecom poles were washed over or damaged and 90 relay transmission routes were cut-off [8].

Figure 4.

Damage to equipment in the Ertaishan switchyard.

Over the last two decades, under the influence of climatic change, many countries and regions have aberrant weather conditions, with extreme weather events more frequent and harmful. And farthermost weather events may increase the possibility that mod electric power systems are disrupted terrifically. For example, Typhoon No. 15 landed near Chiba, Japan on September 9, 2019, and led to a power outage in about 935,000 households in the Kanto region. It was reported from Tokyo Electrical Power Visitor (TEPCO) that the big-calibration power outage was caused by the blown down of two transmission towers in Kimitsu City, and the damage of about 2000 electric poles in various places. Table 1 shows the major power outages acquired by extreme weather events effectually the globe from 2010 to 2019.

Appointment	Extreme weather issue	Number of customers without power	Location
March 2010	Rainstorm	>10,0000	W Australia
March 2011	Tohoku Earthquake, Tsunami	8900,000 households	East Japan
Oct 2012	Hurricane Sandy	8100,000	United states
March 2013	Heavy snow	200,000	Northern Ireland
December 2013	Ice Tempest	~300,000	Canada
July 2014	Typhoon Rammasun	thirteen,000,000	Philippine
November 2015	Windstorm	700,00	Canada
September 2016	The Blyth Tornado	1700,000	Southward Australia
July 2018	Rainstorm	>180,000 households	Westward Japan
September 2019	Typhoon No.fifteen	935,000 households	Due east Japan

Table ane.

Major ability outages worldwide (2010–2019).

Therefore, information technology is essential for the power system to recover speedily from the damage acquired by the high-touch on low-probability natural disasters including extreme weather events, due to continuous power supply being a prerequisite for the performance of other social infrastructures. Based on this background, the concepts of resilience and resilient power grids were proposed, and the research and construction of the resilient power system has gradually go a national strategy for the governments of various countries to focus on.

Ad

3. Power grid resilience

iii.1 The definition of power filigree resilience

The definition of resilience was presented past the National Infrastructure Informational Quango (NIAC) in 2010, which offered a broader definition for infrastructure resilience that the ability to mitigate the magnitude and/or duration of low-frequency high-result events. The effectiveness of a resilient infrastructure depends upon its power to conceptualize, absorb, accommodate to, and/or quickly recover from a potentially disruptive result [9]. The Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (MCEER) presented a conceptual framework to define resilience, which tin be useful to make up one's mind the resiliency of different systems in hereafter research, with iv master features: robustness, back-up, resourcefulness, and rapidity [x].

The NIAC resilience definition was best-selling by the North American Electric Reliability Corporation to be used in power systems [xi]. Therefore, combining the definition mentioned above, a resilient grid tin can be described as a grid with four bones properties of resilience, which is the anticipation, absorption, recovery and adaptability afterwards the destructive events [12]. Anticipation is the ability to avoid any potential damage due to natural disasters; absorption is the power grid's power to minimize the damage caused by natural disasters; recovery refers to the ability of ability grid to rebuild functions damaged by natural disasters; adaptability is the procedure past which a system learns from the by events, to improve its capabilities, and to prepare for the next effect [12].

iii.ii Resilience enhancement strategies for power grid

In this subsection, the hardening measure and operational deportment for resilience enhancement volition exist reviewed.

3.2.1 Hardening measures

Vegetation management.

During a storm or strong wind issue, trees touching or damaging transmission/distribution lines and poles are the nearly common cause of many power outages. Most and Weissman [13] proposed a range of solutions for vegetation management, including pruning/trimming copse around the transmission and distribution lines and replacing potentially problematic trees with species more advisable for the location. They suggested revising municipal tree ordinances to define tall-growing trees planted under powerlines as "nuisance trees". In add-on, Zahodiakin [14] recommended the utilization of Geographic Information Organisation (GIS), sonic scanning and LIDAR (Light Imaging, Detection, and Ranging), to record pole locations, remove targeted copse, decide which trees are nigh probable to plummet in a storm, and measure the height of tree canopies to assess risks of trees falling into power line corridors.

Selective undergrounding.

The strategy of moving transmission and distribution lines underground can effectively reduce the vulnerability to damage of vegetation, wind, animals, lightning, vandalism, and other natural disasters. Nonetheless, the all-encompassing use of this measures has been limited by the costs, because it is three times higher for underground systems than that for overhead systems. For instance, in urban areas, underground lines cost an boilerplate of $559,293 per line mile, while overhead lines price an average of $196,628 per line mile [15]. Moreover, the complexity of these cloak-and-dagger systems and the difficulty of straight observing damaged lines may increment their restoration time. Therefore, later appropriate risk and cost/benefit analysis, targeted or selective undergrounding of overhead lines may be more feasible than a total conversion, which provides benefits for both damage reduction and costs [sixteen].

Upgrade infrastructure of power system.

Upgrading power grid components with stronger materials aims to increase the resilience of ability filigree in the loftier-bear on low-probability natural disasters. Xu et al. [17] proposed a straightforward fashion that reinforcing utility poles and overhead distribution lines with stronger materials to improve the power of distribution systems to ride through high-intensity winds, heavy water ice storms and other farthermost conditions events. They also emphasized the importance of identifying and reinforcing vulnerable components for power sources to access critical loads during farthermost events. Furthermore, for new distribution systems, using stronger poles for the entire system could reduce life-cycle costs in all cases. Relatively, for older systems, targeted hardening is more than economical and effective than hardening the entire organisation [xviii].

Elevated substation and water barrier.

As mentioned earlier, the substation located in a low-lying surface area is more vulnerable to floods acquired by natural disasters. Thus, elevating the substation to a higher place the flood levels could help provide protection confronting flood damage and maintain the normal substation functioning. Boggess et al. [19] proposed to modularize substation equipment and install it on elevated foundation plates, platforms or stilts to assist mitigate flood damage and avoid external impacts such as weather, contamination and wildlife. They indicated that elevating transmission substations with indoor GIS (gas-insulated switchgear) has proven to be an excellent solution to amend reliability and security of power grid, also every bit life-bike costs, especially in coastal areas. In addition, it is possible to install a permanent barrier at the side or sides of the substation most vulnerable to flooding, for existing substations [1].

Relocating facilities and rerouting transmission lines.

Relocating facilities, or rerouting transmission and distribution lines to depression hazard areas also a practicable means to reduce the negative impact of floods, storms and other extreme conditions events on power systems. Considering the cost of relocating facilities and rerouting lines, a long-term price–benefit analysis is necessary to make up one's mind the convenience of substation relocation or lines rerouting [sixteen].

3.ii.2 Operational actions

Emergency mobile substation

As reported past [1, 20], providing portable and mobile generators or substations to ability supply in disaster-afflicted areas is one of the traditional emergency strategies of ability supply. Mobile substation, equanimous of ability transformer, switchgear and temporary control panel, has the advantages of convenient transportation, perfect equipment and reliable operation. The employ of this equipment tin can chop-chop replace the damaged substation to maintain power supply in emergency situations such equally natural disasters and sudden equipment accidents, especially for remote but critical loads. And the operation of mobile substation in loftier load season can overcome the shortage of power supply capacity in some areas. Meanwhile, mobile substations can be flexibly used in the field, mountain areas, and other suitable locations where an extreme weather event is forecasted, due to the ease of moving and installing.

Natural-disaster-based grid predicting and monitoring system

Power systems are highly sensitive and demanding to meteorology, which lead to the product, construction and functioning of power systems are greatly affected by meteorological factors. During natural disasters, through gathering the actual and real-time information to effectively predict and monitor potential damage to power grid components by disaster, is an important mensurate to minimize damage and meliorate power grid resilience. In [21], a car learning based prediction method, using historical data of extreme weather events and amercement of the grid, were proposed to determine the potential outage of ability grid components in response to an imminent hurricane. Such machine learning-based algorithms can be practical to several ability grid related problems such as security cess, risk assay, distributed mistake identification and power outage elapsing prediction [22, 23, 24, 25]. Furthermore, considering the condition of possibly damaged communication channels by natural disaster, a proposal of using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to back up Airborne Damage Assessment Module (ADAM) was presented in [26]. By using this method, on the one hand, it is possible to survey the disaster surface area to think real-fourth dimension information about the power poles and lines, and to decide the shortest possible route for the dispatch of repair personnel based on the data provided. On the other hand, the drones can reach areas that are inaccessible to other vehicles, specially when roads are blocked.

Spare function and repair crew direction

During natural disaster, the availability of spare parts is critical to reducing the recovery time of ability systems, due to requiring a lot of spare parts for the urgent repair of power grid [27]. However, the ability system is complex, including ability generation, transmission and distribution systems. When preparing spare parts, many factors take to exist considered. Hence, it is suggested that controlling and priority-confirming are determined by analyzing the components failure rates, consequences, investment price, and the operation and installment difficulty level [28].

As the crucial response resources for ability outage management confronting natural disasters, repair crews are expected to repair the damaged ability components in an optimal order [29]. In [30], a co-optimization model for the repair and restoration of transmission systems was adult to coordinate generators and repair crews to maximize the picked-up loads after amercement. The starting time step in this model was to locate optimal placement of the central station, which aims to locate the spare parts and repair crews, and to determine the optimal path for each crew to traverse to repair damaged components. Analogously, Lei et al. [31] proposed a co-optimization method for disaster recovery logistics, with adopting the dispatch of repair crews and mobile power sources, and operation of distribution system for electric service restoration.

Distributed Energy Systems and Microgrids

Facing with the hurricane and earthquake, the transmission lines and manual towers may exist destroyed, which tin cause huge power outage to the customers. To deal with this problem, the microgrids connected with distributed energy resources, including the wind turbines, photovoltaic panels, fuel generators and electric vehicles, are becoming increasingly popular. This combination is located closer to the customers and delivers the ability to them through a few or nada transmission lines. Moreover, when there is a failure of the transmission lines, an island gird can notwithstanding be generated at a low-voltage level from the microgrid with distributed free energy resources to supply electrical power and so that the power filigree resilience tin be enhanced. There are ii aspects should be considered for microgrids with distributed energy resources in the resilience improvement. On the ane hand, the locations and ability capacities of the distributed energy resources need to be optimized to attain the minimization of the investment toll, operation cost and the gamble level of unacceptable reliability [31, 32]. On the other hand, the real-time power catamenia of the microgrid/island grid subsequently the disaster should be optimized to minimize the energy consumption on the filigree line and the voltage fluctuation [33].

Advertisement

4. Electric vehicle

In this section, the characteristics of electric vehicle volition exist introduced firstly; then the review of electric vehicles to grid for the resilience of power grid during disaster volition exist conducted.

4.1 Electric vehicle characteristics

In recent years, the renewable energy vehicles have been gaining increasingly attending in the fields of the public, the industry and the government due to its advantage in the independence on fossil free energy and emission reduction for establishing an environment-friendly guild. In this chapter the electric vehicle powered by the battery is mainly represented for the renewable energy vehicle. Generally, EVs include pure battery electrical vehicles (BEVs), hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) and the plug-in hybrid electrical vehicles (PHEVs). Since the first HEV was launched into the market place in 1997, the sales of EVs increment yr past year. Figure 5 shows the projections of EVs sales in U.s.a. from 2020 to 2050 and it is clear that the battery powered vehicles volition become more popular in the automotive market place, especially the long-range pure electric vehicles with large-capacity battery.

Figure v.

Projections of EVs sales in Usa from 2020 to 2050 [34].

Both BEVs and PHEVs are equipped with the devices to accuse electrical energy from the filigree and belch the energy back to filigree with a bi-directional charger. And there is an internal combustion engine, which can be forced to work in loftier-efficiency and green-emission zone because of the improver electric motor to propel the (P)HEV. Compared to the conventional HEVs, there is a larger-capacity battery packet in PHEVs then as to store more electric free energy for propelling vehicle during the daily trip. The main physical structures of powertrain of (P)HEV can be classified into parallel, series and power carve up, equally shown in Configuration A, Configuration B and Configuration C of Figure vi, respectively. The mechanical powers from engine and motor by using electricity from battery can propel the vehicle separately since in that location are two power flows. However, information technology non possible to use engine to propel motor in regeneration style without vehicle running since the motor and tires are connected through a gear. In the serial structure, there is a generator connecting the engine mechanically and connecting the battery electrically so that the engine can but be used to generate electricity in high efficiency zone. The vehicle is only driven by the motor using power from generator or battery. The third popular powertrain structure is power split, where a planetary gear is equipped to connect the engine, generator and motor through sun gear, ring gear and planet gear, respectively. Like the serial structure, the motor is also connected to the tire through a gear. The engine torque can always be in the high-efficiency zone during propelling vehicle mechanically through using the generator to force the engine speed. Every bit the engine and tire (motor) decoupled mechanically in serial and power-split structures, it is possible to use engine for electricity generation.

Figure half dozen.

Physical structures of powertrain of (P)HEV [35].

Table 2 lists parameters comparison of the main rider electrical vehicles in the automotive market. Since in that location is a fuel tank in the vehicle, the running distance of PHEVs are much higher than the BEVs, except for the Tesla with supper large bombardment package. The reason is that the energy density in the battery is too an open problem for BEVs, which leads it not suitable for long altitude trip. On the other hand, the temperature management of battery in winter and summertime should be taken into consideration since the temperature can influence the battery operation deeply. Fifty-fifty though with disadvantage in above aspects, the BEV is even so the most promising vehicle in the future market because of its zero-emission functioning.

Vehicle	Blazon	Tank size (Gallons)	Bombardment capacity (kWh)	Distance (mile)	Electrical distance (mile)
Toyota prius prime	PHEV	11.3	viii.eight	640	24
Nissan leaf	BEV	NA	40/62	149/226	149/226
Tesla model Due south	BEV	NA	100	348	348
BMW i3	BEV	NA	42.2	153	153
Audi A3	PHEV	x.6	8.eight	580	31
Ford fusion energy	PHEV	16.5	nine	610	26

Table 2.

Parameters comparing of the main passenger electric vehicles.

4.2 Electrical vehicle to grid in disaster

With increasing BEVs on the road, the issue of BEVs charging needs to be considered since information technology may influence the power grid, such as the voltage stability and frequency on the nodes, which play virtual function to industrial manufactory users. Moreover, the peak cutting and valley filling of power filigree tin can be achieved past the large-scales BEVs due to its advantage of the large battery storage chapters and the bidirectional charging flexibility. An illustrative conceptual resilience framework of the power grid associated with a disaster is shown in Effigy seven, where the horizontal axis and vertical axis denote the fourth dimension and organisation performance, respectively. Six states are divided in this effigy, which are the resilient, effect, post-event, restoration, post-restoration, and recovery. In this article, resilient is called as the pre-disaster period, and post-event, restoration and mail service-restoration are together named as the post-disaster menstruum. The recovery country is but dependent on the power filigree system characteristics. In this part, the beneficial of EVs every bit mobility of power resource to the power gird when facing the farthermost events in pre-disaster and post-disaster times, especially to the distribution grid are discussed.

Figure 7.

Conceptual resilience framework of power grid associated with a disaster [16].

4.two.i Pre-disaster strategies

The power grid recovery afterward a huge disaster is dependent on the quality and quantity of the resource that can be used at the starting time of recovery. Notwithstanding, during and post disaster, the route network may be destroyed and so that it is of importance to allocate the resource for recovery in accelerate, such as oil of diesel generators and the batteries. With consideration of power filigree device failure, the probability of it tin be estimated through the analysis of weather records and the historical data past using the data-based learning approaches, such equally linear regression, Bayesian learning and Monte Carlo simulation. EV, as a part of the mobility of the power sources, has been widely explored for the ability system resilience under the natural disasters.

Considering the uncertain of the fault locations, a stochastic mixed integer nonlinear program -based resource allocation problem is formulated to maximize the benefit obtained by difference between serving critical load in restoration and the total allocation cost. Meanwhile, the transportation cost is also calculated through the distance and the amount of the resources [36]. With consideration of the bombardment degradation cost and the interpretation of fault locations, a two-stage stochastic mixed integer second club conic program with binary recourse decisions are developed to optimize the investments in the commencement stage and re-route the installed mobile energy resources in the 2d stage. The optimal solutions are derived by the progressive hedging algorithm [37]. On the other hand, a two-stage optimization problem is formulated, where a proactive pro-positioning of mobility power organization strategy is adult to enhance the survivability before the disaster, and a dynamic dispatch of mobility power system strategy is developed to coordinate with restoration and infrastructure recovery effort. It is noted that the optimal solution is obtained through the column and constraint generation algorithm in the first stage [38]. Nether the inspiration of [38, 39] developed a ii-stage restoration strategy to bargain with the power grid resilience problem under seismic scenario by employing the mobility of power sources. In the offset stage, incertitude of the seismic scenario is simulated through the Monte Carlo simulation. A mixed integer nonlinear program optimization problem is formulated in the second stage for routing and scheduling the mobility of power sources. Furthermore, for the purpose of co-optimization of power resources dispatch with mobility and repair crew to achieve the minimization of restoration time, a not-convex mixed integer nonlinear program optimization problem is formulated. The simulation validations under IEEE 33 node testify the effectiveness of the proposed strategy [39].

4.2.2 Post-disaster strategies

When a disaster event happens, the blackout in the urban city tin cause significant damage to the citizens and disquisitional infrastructures. For instance, unused of traffic signals leads to traffic accidents for vehicles and pedestrians and traffic disturbance. The aggressive BEVs on the road also mean large-scales 2d-hand bombardment packs that are not performance enough for BEVs, but they can exist used as the distributed energy infrastructure after the disaster even happens. It is estimated that the finish-of-life batteries in Berlin, Germany past 2040 tin can provide power for emergency traffic signals in the intersections for more than 380 hours, which is time enough for the repair crew to repair the electric power system [40]. On the other hand, the convulsion happened in Fukushima Japan in 2011 damaged the nuclear power plant and only the ships in the sea were survived from the tsunami. In this case, [41] proposed an emergency ability supply strategy by using EVs to transform the electricity from ships to the land for hospitals and shelters.

Due to the storage chapters and charging flexibility of EVs, they tin be used as grid supporting for the microgrid restoration and simulation results show that the active integration of the EV into the microgrid tin make a contribution in reducing MG frequency deviations and reducing the unwanted negative and zero sequence voltage components [42]. Further, past utilizing the bombardment technologies connected to the gird, during the restoration period, [43] proposed a feedback optimal frequency controller with the frequency divergence and SOC divergence every bit land variables and individual battery charging/discharging ability as control input. After the natural disaster, the manual filigree may exist destroyed and the ability from major filigree cannot be transmitted to the distribution grid. Only the remnant equipment of battery and photovoltaic and the EVs are available for ability generation. Since the resistance of the distribution line is larger, the ability loss in the gird should be taken into account. In [33], an optimization problem of minimizing the distribution filigree loss past determining the discharging power nodes from EVs is proposed and both the active power and reactive of the EVs on the nodes are employed.

There are also some strategies focusing on the vehicle to dwelling (V2H) for the resilience improvement of residential customers by providing power from EVs later on the disaster. Peculiarly, some PHEV powertrain structures, such as series and power-split, the gasoline engine can exist practical for generation of electric ability and transform it back for home'due south electric appliances. [44] developed a ability organization direction scheme for emergency scenario to energize the small microgrid (V2G) together with other generators, such as wind turbine and solar panels, or the individual house (V2H) past employing the mobility and free energy capacity of PHEVs. Moreover, the PHEV structure, where the fossil energy that is bachelor to converted into electricity, is discussed. In [45], the simulation results of different type of EVs nether the different cases of summer and winter show that the PHEV, peculiarly with larger tank size, is the amend choice than BEV in term of the long-fourth dimension electric ability supply for the firm electrical appliances and it is suitable as an emergency power supply to be popularized. For instance, fifty-fifty without the pre-preparation before the disaster, the Prius with half gasoline and half bombardment tin can also provide power for more 2 days in the emergency scenario. [46] described the problem that maximizes the fourth dimension duration of V2H supporting residential load in an islanded mode after the disaster as a mixed integer quadratically constrained programming problem, which is solved through the numerical solver. Meanwhile the proposed algorithm is extended to the multi-homes and multi-PHEVs as a microgrid.

Advertisement

5. Conclusions and future work

In this paper, the state-of-the-art of the high-impact low-probability natural disasters influence on the electric power organization is reviewed from the scientifical and technical perspectives. By the analysis of the impacts of unlike natural disasters to the power filigree, it is concluded that the substation equipment in the low-lying expanse and the transmission lines are susceptibly destroyed by the flood and hurricane, respectively. Whereas the destroy caused by the earthquake is all-around, including the power grid network, communication network and the road network. Further, the definition of the ability grid resilience under different natural disasters is explored and the power grid resilience enhancement approaches to deal with these disasters are reviewed from the hardening measures in advance to the existent-time operation actions. Moreover, the utilization of the EVs, seen equally the mobility energy systems, to improve the power grid resilience performance that aims to reduce the restoration fourth dimension of the ability filigree after the disasters, is investigated in periods of both pre-disaster and post-disaster.

Although, a comprehensive investigation on the power grid resilience has been conducted, there even so exist some research areas that are not included in this chapter. Meanwhile, at that place are unsolved researches and opportunities in the future, and they will be explained in detail in the following parts:

1. Forecasting the natural disasters

   Through the review in this newspaper, there are some data-based machine learning algorithms to forecast the probability of a natural disasters, nonetheless, it may be unsuitable past just employing a blackness-box model and applying information technology to a specific disaster event without consideration of the physical mechanisms. The principles in dissimilar kinds of natural disasters should be considered and the prediction performance can be improved by the acknowledge combined with the power grid and the meteorology.

2. Transportation network and communication network

   Dealing with the power grid restoration, the distributed generators play a virtual role in providing the ability for the microgrid when the transmission line is destroyed. In the current research, only the power grid network performance is taken into business relationship for fast restoration; however, the transportation network and the communication network that support lifeline sustainment may be too destroyed by the disaster, such as the flood and the earthquake. On the one mitt, the large-scale rescuing and transportation vehicles may cause congestion. On the other mitt, it is unreachable to allocate the restoration materials reasonably if in that location is not real-time communication in the disaster area.

3. EVs' proportion increasement

   With the fast proportion increasement of EVs on the transportation network, the exploration of EVs to improve the resilience performance of power filigree should be conducted further. Specially, the bidirectional charge belongings providing electric ability back to the grid can be achieved both at abode and at the charge station, which should exist optimized for unlike targets and through dissimilar strategies. When EVs are treated as the distributed generators, the optimal route planning is needed since the power in the battery used for transportation is necessary. Moreover, the fuel availability for PHEVs to increment the power supplement for power resilience in island mode should also exist considered.

4. Inter-disciplinary techniques

   To achieve the best power grid resilience operation facing with the natural disasters, it is not enough if only ability system technology is employed due to the complication of this issue. The researchers in the communities of statistics, optimization, control, communication, hydraulic, and policy can make contribution to this issue. For example, the proposed strategies to deal with the pre-disaster mobile ability resource allocation with too many constraints may lead to no solution and the dynamics model should be considered.

References

1. 1. Abi-Samra North, Henry W. Deportment before... and after a flood. IEEE Power and Free energy Magazine. 2011; ix(two): 52-58. DOI: ten.1109/MPE.2010.939950
2. 2. Reed AD, Powell MD, Westerman JM. Energy supply system operation for Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Energy Engineering. 2010; 136(iv): 95-102. DOI: x.1061/ASCEEY.1943-7897.0000028
3. 3. Kwasinski A, Weaver WW, Chapman PL, et al. Telecommunication power plant impairment assessment for hurricane katrina–site survey and follow-upwardly results. IEEE Systems Journal. 2009; 3(three): 277-287. DOI: 10.1109/JSYST.2009.2026783
4. iv. Zhang P, Tan Y, Ai JM, et al. Lessons learned from the ice storm in 2008 in Jiangxi Prc. In: Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Applied science Conference; 27-31 March 2009; Wuhan. Mainland china: IEEE, 2009. p. 1-four.
5. 5. Xie Q, Zhu R. Earth, wind, and water ice. IEEE Power and Energy Magazine; 2011; 9(two): 28-36. DOI: x.1109/MPE.2010.939947
6. half dozen. Fujisaki E, Takhirov South, Xie Q, et al. Seismic vulnerability of power supply: lessons learned from contempo earthquakes and future horizons of research. In: Proceedings of 9th international conference on structural dynamics; 30 June - 2 July 2014; Porto. Portugal: European Association for Structural Dynamics; 2014. p. 345-350.
7. 7. Tang AK. Telecommunication Functioning—May 2008, Wenchuan, Sichuan Earthquake. In: Technical Quango on Lifeline Earthquake Applied science Conference; 2009; Lifeline Earthquake Engineering in a Multihazard Surroundings; 2009. p. 1-ix.
8. 8. Adachi T, Ishiyama Y, Asakura Y, et al. The restoration of telecom ability amercement by the Great East Japan Earthquake. In: IEEE 33rd International Telecommunication Free energy Conference (INTELEC); 9-13 Oct 2011; Amsterdam. Netherlands: IEEE; 2011. p. 1-v.
9. 9. Berkeley AR, Wallace K, Coo C. A framework for establishing critical infrastructure resilience goals. [Online], 2010. Available from:http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/niac/niac-a-framework-forestablishing-critical-infrastructure-resilience-goals-2010-10-19.pdf
10. 10. Bruneau M, Chang S, Eguchi RT, et al. A framework to quantitatively assess and raise the seismic resilience of communities. Earthquake spectra. 2003; 19(4): 733-752. DOI: ten.1193/one.1623497
11. 11. Forcefulness SIRT. Astringent impact resilience: Considerations and recommendations [Online], 2012. Available from:https://www.nerc.com/comm/OC/SIRTF Related Files DL/SIRTF_Final_May_9_2012-Board_Accepted.pdf
12. 12. Jufri FH, Widiputra V, Jung J. State-of-the-fine art review on power grid resilience to extreme conditions events: Definitions, frameworks, quantitative assessment methodologies, and enhancement strategies. Applied Energy. 2019; 239: 1049-1065. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.02.017
13. 13. Almost WB, Weissman South. Trees and power lines: minimizing conflicts betwixt electrical power infrastructure and the urban forest. 2012.
14. 14. Zahodiakin P. Making distribution grids stronger, more resilient. EPRI J. 2016; iv: 4-8.
15. xv. Fenrick SA, Getachew Fifty. Cost and reliability comparisons of secret and overhead power lines. Utilities Policy. 2012; xx(ane): 31-37. DOI: 10.1016/j.jup.2011.ten.002
16. xvi. Panteli M, Mancarella P. The grid: Stronger, bigger, smarter?: Presenting a conceptual framework of power system resilience. IEEE Ability and Energy Mag. 2015; 13(three): 58-66. DOI: ten.1109/MPE.2015.2397334
17. 17. Xu Y, Liu C, Schneider KP, et al. Toward a resilient distribution system. In: IEEE Ability & Energy Order General Meeting; 26-30 July 2015; Denver. CO. Us: IEEE; 2015. p. 1-five.
18. 18. Salman AM, Li Y, Stewart MG. Evaluating system reliability and targeted hardening strategies of power distribution systems subjected to hurricanes. Reliability Technology & Arrangement Prophylactic. 2015; 144: 319-333. DOI: x.1016/j.ress.2015.07.028
19. 19. Boggess JM, Becker GW, and Mitchell MK. Tempest & inundation hardening of electrical substations. In: IEEE Human foot T&D Conference and Exposition; 14-17 Apr 2014; Chicago. IL. U.s.a.: IEEE; 2014. p. one-5
20. twenty. Davis G, Snyder AF, Mader J. The time to come of distribution arrangement resiliency. In: Clemson University Power Systems Conference; 11-14 March 2014; Clemson. SC. U.s.: IEEE; 2014. p. ane-8.
21. 21. Eskandarpour R, Khodaei A. Machine learning based power grid outage prediction in response to farthermost events. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 2016; 32(iv): 3315-3316. DOI: ten.1109/TPWRS.2016.2631895
22. 22. Wehenkel 50. Automobile learning approaches to power-system security assessment. IEEE Expert. 1997; 12(5): 60-72. DOI: 10.1109/64.621229
23. 23. Guikema SD. Natural disaster take a chance assay for critical infrastructure systems: An arroyo based on statistical learning theory. Reliability Engineering & System Safety. 2009; 94(4): 855-860. DOI: 10.1016/j.ress.2008.09.003
24. 24. Thukaram D, Khincha HP, Vijaynarasimha HP. Artificial neural network and support vector motorcar approach for locating faults in radial distribution systems. IEEE Transactions on Ability Commitment. 2005; 20(2): 710-721. DOI: x.1109/TPWRD.2005.844307
25. 25. Nateghi R, Guikema SD, Quiring SM. Comparing and validation of statistical methods for predicting ability outage durations in the upshot of hurricanes. Run a risk Assay: An International Journal. 2011; 31(12): 1897-1906. DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01618.ten
26. 26. McGranaghan 1000, Olearczyk M, Gellings C. Enhancing distribution resiliency: Opportunities for applying innovative technologies. Electricity Today. 2013; 28(1): 46-48.
27. 27. Jin T, Mai N, Ding Y, et al. Planning for distribution resilience under variable generation: prevention, surviving and recovery. In: IEEE Greenish Technologies Briefing (GreenTech); four-6 April 2018; Austin. TX. USA: IEEE; 2018. p. 49-56.
28. 28. McBeath B. Smart filigree's implications for the service supply chain.http://www.clresearch.com/research/detail.cfm?guid=648B1DE0-3048-79ED99FA-A59C150FC6A4[accessed June 28, 2018]
29. 29. Lei S, Chen C, Li Y, et al. Resilient disaster recovery logistics of distribution systems: Co-optimize service restoration with repair coiffure and mobile power source dispatch. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid. 2019; x(6): 6187-6202. DOI: ten.1109/TSG.2019.2899353
30. 30. Arif A, Ma S, Wang Z. Optimization of manual system repair and restoration with crew routing. In: Due north American Power Symposium (NAPS); 18-xx September 2016; Denver. CO. USA: IEEE; 2016. p. 1-6.
31. 31. Zhang B, Dehghanian P, Kezunovic Grand. Optimal allocation of PV generation and battery storage for enhanced resilience. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid. 2017; ten(i): 535-545. DOI: 10.1109/TSG.2017.2747136
32. 32. Zare M, Abbaspour A, Fotuhi-Firuzabad M, et al. Increasing the resilience of distribution systems against hurricane by optimal switch placement. In: Conference on Electrical Power Distribution Networks Briefing (EPDC). xix-20 April 2017; Semnan. Iran: IEEE; 2017. p. 7-xi.
33. 33. Saitoh H, Abe One thousand, Yashima W. A proposal of emergency microgrid operation of distribution systems after large scale disasters. In: IEEE Region 10 Humanitarian Technology Conference; 26-29 Baronial 2013; Sendai. Japan: IEEE; 2013. p. 136-141.
34. 34. AEO2020 Transportation. [Online], 2020. Available from:https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/AEO2020%20Transportation.pdf
35. 35. Liu J, Peng H. Modeling and control of a ability-divide hybrid vehicle. IEEE transactions on control systems applied science. 2008; sixteen(vi): 1242-1251. DOI: 10.1109/TCST.2008.919447
36. 36. Gao H, Chen Y, Mei Southward, et al. Resilience-oriented pre-hurricane resources allocation in distribution systems considering electrical buses. Proceedings of the IEEE. 2017; 105(7): 1214-1233. DOI: 10.1109/JPROC.2017.2666548
37. 37. Kim J, Dvorkin Y. Enhancing distribution system resilience with mobile energy storage and microgrids. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid. 2018; x(5): 4996-5006. DOI: 10.1109/TSG.2018.2872521
38. 38. Lei S, Chen C, Zhou H, et al. Routing and scheduling of mobile power sources for distribution system resilience enhancement. IEEE Transactions on Smart Filigree. 2018; 10(5): 5650-5662. DOI: ten.1109/TSG.2018.2889347
39. 39. Yang Z, Dehghanian P, Nazemi M. Seismic-resilient electric power distribution systems: Harnessing the mobility of power sources. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. 2020; 56(3): 2304-2313. DOI: 10.1109/TIA.2020.2972854
40. xl. Moore E A, Russell JD, Babbitt CW, et al. Spatial modeling of a 2nd-utilise strategy for electric vehicle batteries to amend disaster resilience and round economic system. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2020; 160: 104889. DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104889
41. 41. Kawana Thou, Hiranuma Grand, Osakabe M. Disaster-proof smart grid using ships to employ renewable energy. In: Proceedings of the GRE2014 International Conference; 2014; Tokyo. Japan.
42. 42. Gouveia C, Moreira CL, Lopes JAP, et al. Microgrid service restoration: The function of plugged-in electric vehicles. IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 2013; seven(4): 26-41. DOI: ten.1109/MIE.2013.2272337
43. 43. Rahman T, Qu Z. The role of electric vehicles for frequency regulation during grid restoration. In: IEEE Power & Energy Gild General Meeting. 16-twenty July 2017; Chicago. IL. U.s.a.: IEEE; 2017. p. one-5.
44. 44. Ustun TS, Cali U, Kisacikoglu MC. Energizing microgrids with electrical vehicles during emergencies—Natural disasters, sabotage and warfare. In: IEEE International Telecommunication Free energy Briefing (INTELEC). xviii-22 October 2015; Osaka. Nihon: IEEE; 2015. p. ane-vi.
45. 45. Rahimi K, Davoudi One thousand. Electric vehicles for improving resilience of distribution systems. Sustainable cities and order. 2018; 36: 246-256. DOI: 10.1016/j.scs.2017.10.006
46. 46. Shin H, Baldick R. Plug-in electrical vehicle to dwelling house (V2H) performance under a grid outage. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid. 2016; 8(4): 2032-2041. DOI: 10.1109/TSG.2016.2603502

Written By

Jingyi Xia, Fuguo Xu and Guangwei Huang

Submitted: July 28th, 2020 Reviewed: October 15th, 2020 Published: Nov 15th, 2020

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed nether the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in whatever medium, provided the original piece of work is properly cited.

Source: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/73982

Posted by: scottgrosse.blogspot.com

Share this post